This article is based upon a presentation at the 1996 National Design Engineering Conference, by three members of the PRP Project Task Force:

The session was organized and chaired by Dr. John W. Wesner, Technical Manager, Process Integration, Lucent Technology Bell Laboratories. Vice President for Systems and Design, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers who also put together this article from the materials prepared for the session.

The Board on Engineering Education of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers recently completed a study supported by the National Science Foundation, on Integrating the Product Realization Process (PRP) into the Undergraduate Curriculum.

In the process of identifying exactly what ought to be integrated into the curriculum, the task force working the project identified TWENTY KEY ELEMENTS OF A PRP. These Key Elements (they could also be termed Key Best Practices) seem to be applicable to many companies, from those with complete Product Realization Processes to those small companies for whom using even a few of these might help them improve their design and manufacturing.

This article includes:

• The Twenty Key Elements of a PRP, identified and briefly described
• The full list of 56 Best Practices, identified but not described
• Background information, including: task force process and participating companies
  

Because the study had as its original goal improving the Mechanical Engineering curriculum, all of the work was done with Mechanical Engineers and Mechanical Engineering students in mind. However, the findings discussed here are clearly usable by anyone involved in product realization whose role includes the particular activity being discussed.

TWENTY KEY ELEMENTS OF A PRP

The twenty items are listed in the order of their importance among the skills of an entry-level Mechanical Engineer.

1. Teams/Teamwork. The ability to work with diverse, multi-discipline team members to successfully reach a goal or objective.

Diverse can refer to gender, ethnicity, educational background, experience, and personality. Multi-Discipline is meant in a broad sense: not just engineering but also business, marketing, customers, and suppliers.

Some examples of contemporary use of teams are:

• TQM (Total Quality Management) and CQI (Continuous Quality Improvement)
• Creating and/or developing a Product or service
• Improving a Product or service
• Process Management and Improvement

2. Communication. The ability to clearly and logically communicate ideas, information, and data orally and in written form to others in a way that engages the intended audience and addresses different learning styles.

This is consistently rated as a perceived shortcoming of engineers.

It has been estimated that in verbal communication, the information is communicated in four waysóin these surprising relative percentages:

Content 7%

Tone 33%

Body Language 55%

Other 5%

For best communication,

• have a clearly defined purpose/objective
• know your audience
• make good use of your chosen medium (e.g., paper, overheads, video)

3. Design for Manufacture. Design to maximize ease of manufacture by simplifying the design through part-count reduction, developing modular designs, minimizing part variation, designing a part to be multi-functional, etc.

DFM is facilitated by using multi-discipline teams from the project start, including manufacturing engineering. Use DFM Checklists, initially early in the project. Not every item on the checklist must be answered yes, but have a good reason for all deviations .

4. CAD Systems. Computer aided drafting boards that allow a user to define a new product by a) creating images and b) assigning geometry, mass, kinematics, material, and other properties to the product.

CAD systems vary in complexity and capability. There are simple 2D systems, and more complex 3D systems with solid modeling capability. Some special capabilities include fits and clearances, geometric tolerancing, feature-based design, and tool path generation for automated machining.

5. Professional Ethics. The ability to conform to standards of conduct determined by oneís profession, in alignment with team and corporate standards.

Follow the Golden Rule: Treat others as you would have them treat you.

Over the years, the focus of published professional Canons of Ethics have changed:

• in 1912, the focus was protection of a clientís or employerís interest (AIEE)
• in 1947, the focus was concern for the safety, health, and welfare of the public (ECPD)
• in 1990, the focus is on fair treatment of all persons (IEEE)
  

6. Creative Thinking. The process of generating ideas, which frequently emphasizes:

• making and expressing meaningful new connections,
• thinking of many new and unusual possibilities, and
• extending and elaborating on alternatives.

The fundamental objective is to turn ideas into something of value in the marketplace. James Moore said in the Harvard Business Review that …the only sustainable competitive advantage comes from out-innovating the competition. Tom Peters has written that …imagination is the main source of value in the new economy.

Examples of some contemporary practices are

• the usual work unit is the team
• a mix of creative minds and effective managers
• an environment conducive to the free flow of ideas
• diversity and divergence of thinking
• a community that respects peopleís differences
• a structured idea-generating session, perhaps using Brainstorming

7. Design for Performance. Designed to perform to product requirements under a wide variety of manufacturing and user operating conditions.

Without this there may be no product, so be sure that the requirements are really what are needed by customers. Use QFD to insure matching the requirements to customer needs. Use Customer Panels for ongoing feedback. Multi-discipline teams need to include marketing management.

8. Design for Reliability. Designing the product so it works the first time, every time for the life of the product (decreasing cycle failure).

Robust Design in its most general sense insures operation in a variety of environments, throughout life. Environmental Stress Testing weeds out problems by subjecting samples to a simultaneous set of extreme operating conditions.

9. Design for Safety. Design so that the manufacture of and the use or abuse of the product minimize the possibility of injuries which could lead to product liability problems.

There are Federal requirements to be met. DFS experts in your company or as consultants know the rules and many opportunities. Designers should use DFS Checklists and published signage and labeling standards.

10. Concurrent Engineering. An approach to new product development where the product and all of its associated processes, such as manufacturing, distribution, and service, and developed in parallel.

Concurrent engineering is strongly supported by

• multi-discipline design teams
• shared data resources
• design reviews

11. Sketching/Drawing. The ability to clearly illustrate ideas and design by freehand sketching.

This requires some skill at recognizing shape and form instead of identifiable familiar objects. This skill can be developed to a fairly high level. Primary uses for sketching are developing your ideas, and selling your ideas to others. The latter requires better art work.

12. Design for Cost. Meeting customer requirements while minimizing cost of all aspects of the product, including production, assembly, distribution, and maintenance.

Have clear cost goals, and constantly re-check the design against these goals. Have a Value Engineering (see below) session including marketers, designers, manufacturing engineers, and purchasers, at the start of the project.

13. Application of Statistics. Methodology of effectively designing tests and analyzing test data using statistical techniques that are founded in probability theory.

More general than Design of Experiments or Statistical Process Control. Example: Reduce variability in performance of parts to achieve specific performance of an electronic system. Example: Determine how much testing must be performed on a critical weld to achieve a specified high confidence that the weld meets specifications.

14. Reliability. A sub-set of statistical engineering methodology which predicts performance of a product over its intended life cycle and understanding of the effects of various failure modes on system performance.

This is distinct from Design for Reliability or Product Testing. Generally involves statistics. Example: Short-term cycle testing might be used to predict the mean time to failure of a new product.

15. Geometric Tolerancing. An agreed-upon convention of symbols and terms used on engineering drawings to connote geometric characteristics and other dimensional requirements.

Tolerances are used to control form, profile, orientation, location, and runout. Geometric Tolerancing helps ensure the most economical and effective production of parts with features that offer function and have proper relationships. Both an engineering drawing language and a functional production and inspection technique (Foster, Geo-Metrics III, 1994). Based upon ANSI standards (circa 1980), ISO standards, and ASME Standards Y14.5M-1994 and Y14.5.1M-1994.

16. Value Engineering. A systematic approach to evaluating design alternatives that seeks to eliminate unnecessary features and functions and to achieve required functions at the lowest possible cost while optimizing manufacturability, quality, and delivery.

Multi-disciplined value engineering sessions conducted in a retreat mode (away from normal work distractions) can also serve for team-building. Get manufacturing and purchasing to make realistic estimates in real time, calling on experts as needed. Use Pughís Concept Selection Method, and build on design platforms as much as possible.

17. Design Reviews. The scheduled-in checkpoints for assessing the design progress toward meeting product requirements and budget.

Participants in a Design Review should be knowledgeable people, some from parts of the organization other than the group whose design is being reviewed, who can ask insightful questions which may expose things that have been overlooked. You want action items to come from the review!

18. Manufacturing Processes. Processes that are used to create or further refine work pieces, such as molding and casting, machining, extruding, stamping, forming, bonding, welding, coating, plating, painting, fabrication, and assembly.

Product design engineers need to be familiar with manufacturing processes which could be used to make their products, so they can make educated trade-offs among them. The need is for familiarity, so that they know to which experts to turn for more detailed information needed to choose among alternatives. This is strongly linked to Design for Manufacture.

19. Systems Perspective. The up-front identification of system components and their interactions for the purpose of optimizing the performance of the system as a whole.

Various methods and tools are useful. Brainstorming by cross-functional teams helps to surface the various issues. Pughís Concept Selection Method can help narrow options.

20. Design for Assembly. Making the product easier to assemble, thereby reducing cycle-time during production.

Make use of Bothroyd-Dewhurst software or manual checklists. In designing components, seek parts that can not be put on wrong, all of which assemble in the same direction. If you can design for a robot to assemble the product, then people can do it easily also. You need to weigh the quantity to be made and the time-to-market against the time and effort to design complex parts that simplify assembly.

THE 56 BEST PRACTICES

The Task Force grouped the 56 Best Practices that were originally identified into five categories. The items within each category are not listed in any particular order.

Knowledge of the Product Realization Process

1. Knowledge of the Product Realization Process
2. Benchmarking
3. Concurrent Engineering
4. Corporate Vision and Product Fit
5. Business Functions (Marketing, Legal, etc.)
6. Industrial Design

PRP Team Skills

1. Project Management
2. Budgeting
3. Project Risk Analysis
4. Design Reviews
5. Information Processing
6. Communication
7. Sketching/Drawing
8. Leadership
9. Conflict Management
10. Professional Ethics
11. Teams and Teamwork

Design Skills

1. Competitive Analysis
2. Creative Thinking
3. Tools for Customer Centered Design
4. Solid Modeling/Rapid Prototyping Systems
5. Systems Perspective
6. Design for Assembly
7. Design for Commonality (Platform)
8. Design for Cost
9. Design for Dis-Assembly
10. Design for the Environment
11. Design for Ergonomics (Human Factors)
12. Design for Manufacture
13. Design for Performance
14. Design for Reliability
15. Design for Safety
16. Design for Service/Repair
17. CAD Systems
18. Geometric Tolerancing

Analysis and Testing Skills

1. Finite Element Analysis
2. Design of Experiments
3. Value Engineering
4. Mechatronics (Mechanisms and Controls)
5. Process Improvement Tools
6. Statistical Process Control
7. Design Standards (e.g., UL, ASME)
8. Testing Standards (e.g., ASTM)
9. Process Standards (e.g., ISO 9000)
10. Product Testing
11. Physical Testing
12. Test Equipment
13. Application of Statistics
14. Reliability

Manufacturing Skills

1. Materials PlanningóInventory
2. Total Quality Management
3. Manufacturing Processes
4. Manufacturing Floor/Workcell Layout
5. Robotics and Automated Assembly
6. Computer Integrated Manufacturing
7. Electro-Mechanical Packaging
   

BACKGROUND

Task Force Process

The study was begun by collaborating with a small group of industry and academic leaders to establish best practices criteria. We then surveyed companies representing a broad spectrum of industry to identify current Product Realization Process practices and expectations for mechanical engineers. Finally, we integrated these findings with academic surveys to determine synergies and gaps.

Participating Companies

Aerospace: Allied Signal, Boeing

Automotive: Advanced Engineering Center, Caterpillar, Ford, General Motors

Chemicals: Eli Lilly & Co., Fluor Daniel

Communications: AT&T, Motorola

Computers/Peripherals: Xerox, Hewlett Packard

Consumer/Industry Products: 3M Center, Alles & Martinsville, G.E. Appliances, Millipore Corp., Optical Coating Lab, OíRyan Corp., Polaroid Corp., Supra Products, Titleist and Foot-Joy Worldwide

Electronics: Amp, ECAD Design Services, Endevco, Kulicke & Saffa, Kulicke Sossa, Sensormatic Electronics, Tektronics, Texas Instruments

Packaged Goods: Kraft Foods

Textiles: Milliken & Co.

Other: Ideo Chicago

For additional detail on this project, see ASME's World Wide Web page http://www.asme.org/educate/execsum.html. Information on obtaining the complete final report can be found there.

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